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Baseball is a bat-and-ball sport played between two teams of nine players each, taking turns batting and fielding. The game occurs over the course of several plays, with each play beginning when a player on the fielding team, called the pitcher, throws a ball that a player on the batting team, called the batter, tries to hit with a bat. The objective of the offensive team (batting team) is to hit the ball into the field of play, away from the other team’s players, allowing its players to run the bases, having them advance counter-clockwise around four bases to score what are called “runs“. The objective of the defensive team (referred to as the fielding team) is to prevent batters from becoming runners, and to prevent runners advancing around the bases.^[2] A run is scored when a runner legally advances around the bases in order and touches home plate (the place where the player started as a batter).

The initial objective of the batting team is to have a player reach first base safely; this occurs either when the batter hits the ball and reaches first base before an opponent retrieves the ball and touches the base, or when the pitcher persists in throwing the ball out of the batter’s reach. Players on the batting team who reach first base without being called “out” can attempt to advance to subsequent bases as a runner, either immediately or during teammates’ turns batting. The fielding team tries to prevent runs by using the ball to get batters or runners “out”, which forces them out of the field of play. The pitcher can get the batter out by throwing three pitches which result in strikes, while fielders can get the batter out by catching a batted ball before it touches the ground, and can get a runner out by tagging them with the ball while the runner is not touching a base.

The opposing teams switch back and forth between batting and fielding; the batting team’s turn to bat is over once the fielding team records three outs. One turn batting for each team constitutes an inning. A game is usually composed of nine innings, and the team with the greater number of runs at the end of the game wins. Most games end after the ninth inning, but if scores are tied at that point, extra innings are usually played. Baseball has no game clock, though some competitions feature pace-of-play regulations such as the pitch clock to shorten game time.

Baseball evolved from older bat-and-ball games already being played in England by the mid-18th century. This game was brought by immigrants to North America, where the modern version developed. Baseball’s American origins, as well as its reputation as a source of escapism during troubled points in American history such as the American Civil War and the Great Depression, have led the sport to receive the moniker of “America’s Pastime”; since the late 19th century, it has been unofficially recognized as the national sport of the United States, though in modern times is considered less popular than other sports, such as American football. In addition to North America, baseball spread throughout the rest of the Americas and the Asia–Pacific in the 19th and 20th centuries,^[3] and is now considered the most popular sport in parts of Central and South America, the Caribbean, and East Asia, particularly in Japan, South Korea, and Taiwan.

In Major League Baseball (MLB), the highest level of professional baseball in the United States and Canada, teams are divided into the National League (NL) and American League (AL), each with three divisions: East, West, and Central. The MLB champion is determined by playoffs that culminate in the World Series. The top level of play is similarly split in Japan between the Central and Pacific Leagues and in Cuba between the West League and East League. The World Baseball Classic, organized by the World Baseball Softball Confederation, is the major international competition of the sport and attracts the top national teams from around the world. Baseball was played at the Olympic Games from 1992 to 2008, and was reinstated on a one-off basis in 2020.

Rules and gameplay

Further information: Baseball rules and Outline of baseball

Overview

A baseball game is played between two teams, each composed of nine players, that take turns playing offense (batting and baserunning) and defense (pitching and fielding). A pair of turns, one at bat and one in the field, by each team constitutes an inning. A game consists of nine innings (seven innings at the high school level and in doubleheaders in college, Minor League Baseball and, since the 2020 season, Major League Baseball; and six innings at the Little League level).^[4] One team—customarily the visiting team—bats in the top, or first half, of every inning. The other team—customarily the home team—bats in the bottom, or second half, of every inning.

The goal of the game is to score more points (runs) than the other team. The players on the team at bat attempt to score runs by touching all four bases, in order, set at the corners of the square-shaped baseball diamond. A player bats at home plate and must attempt to safely reach a base before proceeding, counterclockwise, from first base, to second base, third base, and back home to score a run. The team in the field attempts to prevent runs from scoring by recording outs, which remove opposing players from offensive action until their next turn at bat comes up again. When three outs are recorded, the teams switch roles for the next half-inning. If the score of the game is tied after nine innings, extra innings are played to resolve the contest. Many amateur games, particularly unorganized ones, involve different numbers of players and innings.^[5]

The game is played on a field whose primary boundaries, the foul lines, extend forward from home plate at 45-degree angles. The 90-degree area within the foul lines is referred to as fair territory; the 270-degree area outside them is foul territory. The part of the field enclosed by the bases and several yards beyond them is the infield; the area farther beyond the infield is the outfield. In the middle of the infield is a raised pitcher’s mound, with a rectangular rubber plate (the rubber) at its center. The outer boundary of the outfield is typically demarcated by a raised fence, which may be of any material and height. The fair territory between home plate and the outfield boundary is baseball’s field of play, though significant events can take place in foul territory, as well.^[6]

There are three basic tools of baseball: the ball, the bat, and the glove or mitt:

• The baseball is about the size of an adult’s fist, around 9 inches (23 centimeters) in circumference. It has a rubber or cork center, wound in yarn and covered in white cowhide, with red stitching.^[7]
• The bat is a hitting tool, traditionally made of a single, solid piece of wood. Other materials are now commonly used for nonprofessional games. It is a hard round stick, about 2.5 inches (6.4 centimeters) in diameter at the hitting end, tapering to a narrower handle and culminating in a knob. Bats used by adults are typically around 34 inches (86 centimeters) long, and not longer than 42 inches (110 centimeters).^[8]
• The glove or mitt is a fielding tool, made of padded leather with webbing between the fingers. As an aid in catching and holding onto the ball, it takes various shapes to meet the specific needs of different fielding positions.^[9]

Protective helmets are also standard equipment for all batters.^[10]

Fielding positions

At the beginning of each half-inning, the nine players of the fielding team arrange themselves around the field. One of them, the pitcher, stands on the pitcher’s mound. The pitcher begins the pitching delivery with one foot on the rubber, pushing off it to gain velocity when throwing toward home plate. Another fielding team player, the catcher, squats on the far side of home plate, facing the pitcher. The rest of the fielding team faces home plate, typically arranged as four infielders—who set up along or within a few yards outside the imaginary lines (basepaths) between first, second, and third base—and three outfielders. In the standard arrangement, there is a first baseman positioned several steps to the left of first base, a second baseman to the right of second base, a shortstop to the left of second base, and a third baseman to the right of third base. The basic outfield positions are left fielder, center fielder, and right fielder. With the exception of the catcher, all fielders are required to be in fair territory when the pitch is delivered. A neutral umpire sets up behind the catcher.^[11] Other umpires will be distributed around the field as well.^[12]

Offense

Play starts with a member of the batting team, the batter, standing in either of the two batter’s boxes next to home plate, holding a bat.^[13] The batter waits for the pitcher to throw a pitch (the ball) toward home plate, and attempts to hit the ball^[14] with the bat.^[13] The catcher catches pitches that the batter does not hit—as a result of either electing not to swing or failing to connect—and returns them to the pitcher. A batter who hits the ball into the field of play must drop the bat and begin running toward first base, at which point the player is referred to as a runner (or, until the play is over, a batter-runner).

A batter-runner who reaches first base without being put out is said to be safe and is on base. A batter-runner may choose to remain at first base or attempt to advance to second base or even beyond—however far the player believes can be reached safely. A player who reaches base despite proper play by the fielders has recorded a hit. A player who reaches first base safely on a hit is credited with a single. If a player makes it to second base safely as a direct result of a hit, it is a double; third base, a triple. If the ball is hit in the air within the foul lines over the entire outfield (and outfield fence, if there is one), or if the batter-runner otherwise safely circles all the bases, it is a home run: the batter and any runners on base may all freely circle the bases, each scoring a run. This is the most desirable result for the batter. The ultimate and most desirable result possible for a batter would be to hit a home run while all three bases are occupied or “loaded”, thus scoring four runs on a single hit. This is called a grand slam. A player who reaches base due to a fielding mistake is not credited with a hit—instead, the responsible fielder is charged with an error.^[13]

Any runners already on base may attempt to advance on batted balls that land, or contact the ground, in fair territory, before or after the ball lands. A runner on first base must attempt to advance if a ball lands in play, as only one runner may occupy a base at any given time; the same applies for other runners if they are on a base that a teammate is forced to advance to. If a ball hit into play rolls foul before passing through the infield, it becomes dead and any runners must return to the base they occupied when the play began. If the ball is hit in the air and caught before it lands, the batter has flied out and any runners on base may attempt to advance only if they tag up (contact the base they occupied when the play began, as or after the ball is caught). Runners may also attempt to advance to the next base while the pitcher is in the process of delivering the ball to home plate; a successful effort is a stolen base.^[15]

Defense

A pitch that is not hit into the field of play is called either a strike or a ball. A batter against whom three strikes are recorded strikes out. A batter against whom four balls are recorded is awarded a base on balls or walk, a free advance to first base. (A batter may also freely advance to first base if the batter’s body or uniform is struck by a pitch outside the strike zone, provided the batter does not swing and attempts to avoid being hit.)^[16] Crucial to determining balls and strikes is the umpire’s judgment as to whether a pitch has passed through the strike zone, a conceptual area above home plate extending from the midpoint between the batter’s shoulders and belt down to the hollow of the knee.^[17] Any pitch which does not pass through the strike zone is called a ball, unless the batter either swings and misses at the pitch, or hits the pitch into foul territory; an exception generally occurs if the ball is hit into foul territory when the batter already has two strikes, in which case neither a ball nor a strike is called.

While the team at bat is trying to score runs, the team in the field is attempting to record outs. In addition to the strikeout and flyout, common ways a member of the batting team may be put out include the ground out, force out, and tag out. These occur either when a runner is forced to advance to a base, and a fielder with possession of the ball reaches that base before the runner does, or the runner is touched by the ball, held in a fielder’s hand, while not on a base. (The batter-runner is always forced to advance to first base, and any other runners must advance to the next base if a teammate is forced to advance to their base.) It is possible to record two outs in the course of the same play. This is called a double play. Three outs in one play, a triple play, is possible, though rare. Players put out or retired must leave the field, returning to their team’s dugout or bench. A runner may be stranded on base when a third out is recorded against another player on the team. Stranded runners do not benefit the team in its next turn at bat as every half-inning begins with the bases empty.^[18]

Batting order and substitution

An individual player’s turn batting or plate appearance is complete when the player reaches base, hits a home run, makes an out, or hits a ball that results in the team’s third out, even if it is recorded against a teammate. On rare occasions, a batter may be at the plate when, without the batter’s hitting the ball, a third out is recorded against a teammate—for instance, a runner getting caught stealing (tagged out attempting to steal a base). A batter with this sort of incomplete plate appearance starts off the team’s next turn batting; any balls or strikes recorded against the batter the previous inning are erased.

A runner may circle the bases only once per plate appearance and thus can score at most a single run per batting turn. Once a player has completed a plate appearance, that player may not bat again until the eight other members of the player’s team have all taken their turn at bat in the batting order. The batting order is set before the game begins, and may not be altered except for substitutions. Once a player has been removed for a substitute, that player may not reenter the game. Children’s games often have more lenient rules, such as Little League rules, which allow players to be substituted back into the same game.^[4][19]

If the designated hitter (DH) rule is in effect, each team has a tenth player whose sole responsibility is to bat (and run). The DH takes the place of another player—almost invariably the pitcher—in the batting order, but does not field. Thus, even with the DH, each team still has a batting order of nine players and a fielding arrangement of nine players.^[20]

Personnel

See also: Baseball positions

Players

See also the categories Baseball players and Lists of baseball players

The number of players on a baseball roster, or squad, varies by league and by the level of organized play. A Major League Baseball (MLB) team has a roster of 26 players with specific roles. A typical roster features the following players:^[21]

• Eight position players: the catcher, four infielders, and three outfielders—all of whom play on a regular basis
• Five starting pitchers who constitute the team’s pitching rotation or starting rotation
• Seven relief pitchers, including one closer, who constitute the team’s bullpen (named for the off-field area where pitchers warm up)
• One backup, or substitute, catcher
• Five backup infielders and backup outfielders, or players who can play multiple positions, known as utility players.

Most baseball leagues worldwide have the DH rule, including MLB, Japan’s Pacific League, and Caribbean professional leagues, along with major American amateur organizations.^[22] The Central League in Japan does not have the rule and high-level minor league clubs connected to National League teams are not required to field a DH.^[23] In leagues that apply the designated hitter rule, a typical team has nine offensive regulars (including the DH), five starting pitchers,^[24] seven or eight relievers, a backup catcher, and two or three other reserve players.^[25][26]

Managers and coaches

The manager, or head coach, oversees the team’s major strategic decisions, such as establishing the starting rotation, setting the lineup, or batting order, before each game, and making substitutions during games—in particular, bringing in relief pitchers. Managers are typically assisted by two or more coaches; they may have specialized responsibilities, such as working with players on hitting, fielding, pitching, or strength and conditioning. At most levels of organized play, two coaches are stationed on the field when the team is at bat: the first base coach and third base coach, who occupy designated coaches’ boxes, just outside the foul lines. These coaches assist in the direction of baserunners, when the ball is in play, and relay tactical signals from the manager to batters and runners, during pauses in play.^[27] In contrast to many other team sports, baseball managers and coaches generally wear their team’s uniforms; coaches must be in uniform to be allowed on the field to confer with players during a game.^[28]

Umpires

Any baseball game involves one or more umpires, who make rulings on the outcome of each play. At a minimum, one umpire will stand behind the catcher, to have a good view of the strike zone, and call balls and strikes. Additional umpires may be stationed near the other bases, thus making it easier to judge plays such as attempted force outs and tag outs. In MLB, four umpires are used for each game, one near each base. In the playoffs, six umpires are used: one at each base and two in the outfield along the foul lines.^[29]

Strategy

See also: Baseball positioning

Many of the pre-game and in-game strategic decisions in baseball revolve around a fundamental fact: in general, right-handed batters tend to be more successful against left-handed pitchers and, to an even greater degree, left-handed batters tend to be more successful against right-handed pitchers.^[30] A manager with several left-handed batters in the regular lineup, who knows the team will be facing a left-handed starting pitcher, may respond by starting one or more of the right-handed backups on the team’s roster. During the late innings of a game, as relief pitchers and pinch hitters are brought in, the opposing managers will often go back and forth trying to create favorable matchups with their substitutions. The manager of the fielding team trying to arrange same-handed pitcher-batter matchups and the manager of the batting team trying to arrange opposite-handed matchups. With a team that has the lead in the late innings, a manager may remove a starting position player—especially one whose turn at bat is not likely to come up again—for a more skillful fielder (known as a defensive substitution).^[31]

Tactics

Pitching and fielding

See also: Pitch (baseball)

The tactical decision that precedes almost every play in a baseball game involves pitch selection.^[32] By gripping and then releasing the baseball in a certain manner, and by throwing it at a certain speed, pitchers can cause the baseball to break to either side, or downward, as it approaches the batter, thus creating differing pitches that can be selected.^[33] Among the resulting wide variety of pitches that may be thrown, the four basic types are the fastball, the changeup (or off-speed pitch), and two breaking balls—the curveball and the slider.^[34] Pitchers have different repertoires of pitches they are skillful at throwing. Conventionally, before each pitch, the catcher signals the pitcher what type of pitch to throw, as well as its general vertical or horizontal location.^[35] If there is disagreement on the selection, the pitcher may shake off the sign and the catcher will call for a different pitch.

With a runner on base and taking a lead, the pitcher may attempt a pickoff, a quick throw to a fielder covering the base to keep the runner’s lead in check or, optimally, effect a tag out.^[36] Pickoff attempts, however, are subject to rules that severely restrict the pitcher’s movements before and during the pickoff attempt. Violation of any one of these rules could result in the umpire calling a balk against the pitcher, which permits any runners on base to advance one base with impunity.^[37] If an attempted stolen base is anticipated, the catcher may call for a pitchout, a ball thrown deliberately off the plate, allowing the catcher to catch it while standing and throw quickly to a base.^[38] Facing a batter with a strong tendency to hit to one side of the field, the fielding team may employ a shift, with most or all of the fielders moving to the left or right of their usual positions. With a runner on third base, the infielders may play in, moving closer to home plate to improve the odds of throwing out the runner on a ground ball, though a sharply hit grounder is more likely to carry through a drawn-in infield.^[39]

Batting and baserunning

Several basic offensive tactics come into play with a runner on first base, including the fundamental choice of whether to attempt a steal of second base. The hit and run is sometimes employed, with a skillful contact hitter, the runner takes off with the pitch, drawing the shortstop or second baseman over to second base, creating a gap in the infield for the batter to poke the ball through.^[40] The sacrifice bunt, calls for the batter to focus on making soft contact with the ball, so that it rolls a short distance into the infield, allowing the runner to advance into scoring position as the batter is thrown out at first. A batter, particularly one who is a fast runner, may also attempt to bunt for a hit. A sacrifice bunt employed with a runner on third base, aimed at bringing that runner home, is known as a squeeze play.^[41] With a runner on third and fewer than two outs, a batter may instead concentrate on hitting a fly ball that, even if it is caught, will be deep enough to allow the runner to tag up and score—a successful batter, in this case, gets credit for a sacrifice fly.^[39] In order to increase the chance of advancing a batter to first base via a walk, the manager will sometimes signal a batter who is ahead in the count (i.e., has more balls than strikes) to take, or not swing at, the next pitch. The batter’s potential reward of reaching base (via a walk) exceeds the disadvantage if the next pitch is a strike.^[42]

History

Main article: History of baseball

Further information: Origins of baseball

The evolution of baseball from older bat-and-ball games is difficult to trace with precision. Consensus once held that today’s baseball is a North American development from the older game rounders, popular among children in Great Britain and Ireland.^[43][44][45] American baseball historian David Block suggests that the game originated in England; recently uncovered historical evidence supports this position. According to Block and John Thorn, official MLB historian, this earlier version of baseball may have involved hitting the ball with a hand, making it akin to today’s punchball.^[46][47] Block argues that rounders and early baseball were actually regional variants of each other, and that the game’s most direct antecedents are the English games of stoolball and “tut-ball”.^[43] The earliest known reference to baseball is in a 1744 British publication, A Little Pretty Pocket-Book, by John Newbery.^[48] Block discovered that the first recorded game of “Bass-Ball” took place in 1749 in Surrey, and featured the Prince of Wales as a player.^[49] This early form of the game was apparently brought to Canada by English immigrants.^[50]

By the early 1830s, there were reports of a variety of uncodified bat-and-ball games recognizable as early forms of baseball being played around North America.^[55] The first officially recorded baseball game in North America was played in Beachville, Ontario, Canada, on June 4, 1838.^[56] In 1845, Alexander Cartwright, a member of New York City’s Knickerbocker Club, led the codification of the so-called Knickerbocker Rules,^[57] which in turn were based on rules developed in 1837 by William R. Wheaton of the Gotham Club.^[58] While there are reports that the New York Knickerbockers played games in 1845, the contest long recognized as the first officially recorded baseball game in U.S. history took place on June 19, 1846, in Hoboken, New Jersey: the “New York Nine” defeated the Knickerbockers, 23–1, in four innings.^[59] With the Knickerbocker code as the basis, the rules of modern baseball continued to evolve over the next half-century.^[60] The game then went on to spread throughout the Pacific Rim and the Americas,^[61][62] with Americans backing the sport as a way to spread American values.^[63]

In the United States

Further information: Baseball in the United States and History of baseball in the United States

Establishment of professional leagues

In the mid-1850s, a baseball craze hit the New York metropolitan area,^[64] and by 1856, local journals were referring to baseball as the “national pastime” or “national game”.^[65] A year later, the sport’s first governing body, the National Association of Base Ball Players, was formed. In 1867, it barred participation by African Americans.^[66] The more formally structured National League was founded in 1876.^[67] Professional Negro leagues formed, but quickly folded.^[68] In 1887, softball, under the name of indoor baseball or indoor-outdoor, was invented as a winter version of the parent game.^[69] The National League’s first successful counterpart, the American League, which evolved from the minor Western League, was established in 1893, and virtually all of the modern baseball rules were in place by then.^[70][71]

The National Agreement of 1903 formalized relations both between the two major leagues and between them and the National Association of Professional Base Ball Leagues, representing most of the country’s minor professional leagues.^[72] The World Series, pitting the two major league champions against each other, was inaugurated that fall.^[73] The Black Sox Scandal of the 1919 World Series led to the formation of the office of the Commissioner of Baseball.^[74] The first commissioner, Kenesaw Mountain Landis, was elected in 1920. That year also saw the founding of the Negro National League; the first significant Negro league, it would operate until 1931. For part of the 1920s, it was joined by the Eastern Colored League.^[75]

Rise of Ruth and racial integration

Compared with the present, professional baseball in the early 20th century was lower-scoring, and pitchers were more dominant.^[76] This so-called “dead-ball era” ended in the early 1920s with several changes in rule and circumstance that were advantageous to hitters. Strict new regulations governed the ball’s size, shape and composition, along with a new rule officially banning the spitball and other pitches that depended on the ball being treated or roughed-up with foreign substances, resulted in a ball that traveled farther when hit.^[77] The rise of the legendary player Babe Ruth, the first great power hitter of the new era, helped permanently alter the nature of the game.^[78] In the late 1920s and early 1930s, St. Louis Cardinals general manager Branch Rickey invested in several minor league clubs and developed the first modern farm system.^[79] A new Negro National League was organized in 1933; four years later, it was joined by the Negro American League. The first elections to the National Baseball Hall of Fame took place in 1936. In 1939, Little League Baseball was founded in Pennsylvania.^[80]

Many minor league teams disbanded when World War II led to a player shortage. Chicago Cubs owner Philip K. Wrigley led the formation of the All-American Girls Professional Baseball League to help keep the game in the public eye.^[81] The first crack in the unwritten agreement barring blacks from white-controlled professional ball occurred in 1945: Jackie Robinson was signed by the National League’s Brooklyn Dodgers and began playing for their minor league team in Montreal.^[82] In 1947, Robinson broke the major leagues’ color barrier when he debuted with the Dodgers.^[83] Latin-American players, largely overlooked before, also started entering the majors in greater numbers. In 1951, two Chicago White Sox, Venezuelan-born Chico Carrasquel and black Cuban-born Minnie Miñoso, became the first Hispanic All-Stars.^[84][85] Integration proceeded slowly: by 1953, only six of the 16 major league teams had a black player on the roster.^[84]

Attendance records and the age of steroids

In 1975, the union’s power—and players’ salaries—began to increase greatly when the reserve clause was effectively struck down, leading to the free agency system.^[86] Significant work stoppages occurred in 1981 and 1994, the latter forcing the cancellation of the World Series for the first time in 90 years.^[87] Attendance had been growing steadily since the mid-1970s and in 1994, before the stoppage, the majors were setting their all-time record for per-game attendance.^[88][89] After play resumed in 1995, non-division-winning wild card teams became a permanent fixture of the post-season. Regular-season interleague play was introduced in 1997 and the second-highest attendance mark for a full season was set.^[90] In 2000, the National and American Leagues were dissolved as legal entities. While their identities were maintained for scheduling purposes (and the designated hitter distinction), the regulations and other functions—such as player discipline and umpire supervision—they had administered separately were consolidated under the rubric of MLB.^[91]

In 2001, Barry Bonds established the current record of 73 home runs in a single season. There had long been suspicions that the dramatic increase in power hitting was fueled in large part by the abuse of illegal steroids (as well as by the dilution of pitching talent due to expansion), but the issue only began attracting significant media attention in 2002 and there was no penalty for the use of performance-enhancing drugs before 2004.^[92] In 2007, Bonds became MLB’s all-time home run leader, surpassing Hank Aaron, as total major league and minor league attendance both reached all-time highs.^[93][94]

Around the world

Main article: History of baseball outside the United States

Despite having been called “America’s national pastime”, baseball is well-established in several other countries. As early as 1877, a professional league, the International Association, featured teams from both Canada and the United States.^[95] While baseball is widely played in Canada and many minor league teams have been based in the country,^[96][97] the American major leagues did not include a Canadian club until 1969, when the Montreal Expos joined the National League as an expansion team. In 1977, the expansion Toronto Blue Jays joined the American League.^[98]

In 1847, American soldiers played what may have been the first baseball game in Mexico at Parque Los Berros in Xalapa, Veracruz.^[99] The first formal baseball league outside of the United States and Canada was founded in 1878 in Cuba, which maintains a rich baseball tradition. The Dominican Republic held its first islandwide championship tournament in 1912.^[100] Professional baseball tournaments and leagues began to form in other countries between the world wars, including the Netherlands (formed in 1922), Australia (1934), Japan (1936), Mexico (1937), and Puerto Rico (1938).^[101] The Japanese major leagues have long been considered the highest quality professional circuits outside of the United States.^[102]

After World War II, professional leagues were founded in many Latin American countries, most prominently Venezuela (1946) and the Dominican Republic (1955).^[104] Since the early 1970s, the annual Caribbean Series has matched the championship clubs from the four leading Latin American winter leagues: the Dominican Professional Baseball League, Mexican Pacific League, Puerto Rican Professional Baseball League, and Venezuelan Professional Baseball League. In Asia, South Korea (1982), Taiwan (1990) and China (2003) all have professional leagues.^[105]

The English football club, Aston Villa, were the first British baseball champions winning the 1890 National League of Baseball of Great Britain.^[106][107] The 2020 National Champions were the London Mets. Other European countries have seen professional leagues; the most successful, other than the Dutch league, is the Italian league, founded in 1948.^[108] In 2004, Australia won a surprise silver medal at the Olympic Games.^[109] The Confédération Européene de Baseball (European Baseball Confederation), founded in 1953, organizes a number of competitions between clubs from different countries. Other competitions between national teams, such as the Baseball World Cup and the Olympic baseball tournament, were administered by the International Baseball Federation (IBAF) from its formation in 1938 until its 2013 merger with the International Softball Federation to create the current joint governing body for both sports, the World Baseball Softball Confederation (WBSC).^[110] Women’s baseball is played on an organized amateur basis in numerous countries.^[111]

After being admitted to the Olympics as a medal sport beginning with the 1992 Games, baseball was dropped from the 2012 Summer Olympic Games at the 2005 International Olympic Committee meeting. It remained part of the 2008 Games.^[112] While the sport’s lack of a following in much of the world was a factor,^[113] more important was MLB’s reluctance to allow its players to participate during the major league season.^[114] MLB initiated the World Baseball Classic, scheduled to precede its season, partly as a replacement, high-profile international tournament. The inaugural Classic, held in March 2006, was the first tournament involving national teams to feature a significant number of MLB participants.^[115][116] The Baseball World Cup was discontinued after its 2011 edition in favor of an expanded World Baseball Classic.^[117]

Distinctive elements

Baseball has certain attributes that set it apart from the other popular team sports in the countries where it has a following. All of these sports use a clock,^[118] play is less individual,^[119] and the variation between playing fields is not as substantial or important.^[120] The comparison between cricket and baseball demonstrates that many of baseball’s distinctive elements are shared in various ways with its cousin sports.^[121]

No clock to kill

In clock-limited sports, games often end with a team that holds the lead killing the clock rather than competing aggressively against the opposing team. In contrast, baseball has no clock, thus a team cannot win without getting the last batter out and rallies are not constrained by time. At almost any turn in any baseball game, the most advantageous strategy is some form of aggressive strategy.^[122] Whereas, in the case of multi-day Test and first-class cricket, the possibility of a draw (which occurs because of the restrictions on time, which like in baseball, originally did not exist^[123]) often encourages a team that is batting last and well behind, to bat defensively and run out the clock, giving up any faint chance at a win, to avoid an overall loss.^[124]

While nine innings has been the standard since the beginning of professional baseball, the duration of the average major league game has increased steadily through the years. At the turn of the 20th century, games typically took an hour and a half to play. In the 1920s, they averaged just less than two hours, which eventually ballooned to 2:38 in 1960.^[125] By 1997, the average American League game lasted 2:57 (National League games were about 10 minutes shorter—pitchers at the plate making for quicker outs than designated hitters).^[126] In 2004, Major League Baseball declared that its goal was an average game of 2:45.^[125] By 2014, though, the average MLB game took over three hours to complete.^[127] The lengthening of games is attributed to longer breaks between half-innings for television commercials, increased offense, more pitching changes, and a slower pace of play, with pitchers taking more time between each delivery, and batters stepping out of the box more frequently.^[125][126] Other leagues have experienced similar issues. In 2008, Nippon Professional Baseball took steps aimed at shortening games by 12 minutes from the preceding decade’s average of 3:18.^[128]

In 2016, the average nine-inning playoff game in Major League baseball was 3 hours and 35 minutes. This was up 10 minutes from 2015 and 21 minutes from 2014.^[129] In response to the lengthening of the game, MLB decided from the 2023 season onward to institute a pitch clock rule to penalize batters and pitchers who take too much time between pitches; this had the effect of shortening 2023 regular season games by 24 minutes on average.^[130][131]

Individual focus

Although baseball is a team sport, individual players are often placed under scrutiny and pressure. While rewarding, it has sometimes been described as “ruthless” due to the pressure on the individual player.^[132] In 1915, a baseball instructional manual pointed out that every single pitch, of which there are often more than two hundred in a game, involves an individual, one-on-one contest: “the pitcher and the batter in a battle of wits”.^[133] Pitcher, batter, and fielder all act essentially independent of each other. While coaching staffs can signal pitcher or batter to pursue certain tactics, the execution of the play itself is a series of solitary acts. If the batter hits a line drive, the outfielder is solely responsible for deciding to try to catch it or play it on the bounce and for succeeding or failing. The statistical precision of baseball is both facilitated by this isolation and reinforces it.

Cricket is more similar to baseball than many other team sports in this regard: while the individual focus in cricket is mitigated by the importance of the batting partnership and the practicalities of tandem running, it is enhanced by the fact that a batsman may occupy the wicket for an hour or much more.^[134] There is no statistical equivalent in cricket for the fielding error and thus less emphasis on personal responsibility in this area of play.^[135]

Uniqueness of parks

Further information: Ballpark

Unlike those of most sports, baseball playing fields can vary significantly in size and shape. While the dimensions of the infield are specifically regulated, the only constraint on outfield size and shape for professional teams, following the rules of MLB and Minor League Baseball, is that fields built or remodeled since June 1, 1958, must have a minimum distance of 325 feet (99 m) from home plate to the fences in left and right field and 400 feet (122 m) to center.^[136] Major league teams often skirt even this rule. For example, at Daikin Park, which became the home of the Houston Astros in 2000, the Crawford Boxes in left field are only 315 feet (96 m) from home plate.^[137] There are no rules at all that address the height of fences or other structures at the edge of the outfield. The most famously idiosyncratic outfield boundary is the left-field wall at Boston’s Fenway Park, in use since 1912: the Green Monster is 310 feet (94 m) from home plate down the line and 37 feet (11 m) tall.^[138]

Similarly, there are no regulations at all concerning the dimensions of foul territory. Thus a foul fly ball may be entirely out of play in a park with little space between the foul lines and the stands, but a foulout in a park with more expansive foul ground.^[139] A fence in foul territory that is close to the outfield line will tend to direct balls that strike it back toward the fielders, while one that is farther away may actually prompt more collisions, as outfielders run full speed to field balls deep in the corner. These variations can make the difference between a double and a triple or inside-the-park home run.^[140] The surface of the field is also unregulated. While the adjacent image shows a traditional field surfacing arrangement (and the one used by virtually all MLB teams with naturally surfaced fields), teams are free to decide what areas will be grassed or bare.^[141] Some fields—including several in MLB—use artificial turf. Surface variations can have a significant effect on how ground balls behave and are fielded as well as on baserunning. Similarly, the presence of a roof (seven major league teams play in stadiums with permanent or retractable roofs) can greatly affect how fly balls are played.^[142] While football and soccer players deal with similar variations of field surface and stadium covering, the size and shape of their fields are much more standardized. The area out-of-bounds on a football or soccer field does not affect play the way foul territory in baseball does, so variations in that regard are largely insignificant.^[143]

These physical variations create a distinctive set of playing conditions at each ballpark. Other local factors, such as altitude and climate, can also significantly affect play. A given stadium may acquire a reputation as a pitcher’s park or a hitter’s park, if one or the other discipline notably benefits from its unique mix of elements. The most exceptional park in this regard is Coors Field, home of the Colorado Rockies. Its high altitude—5,282 feet (1,610 m) above sea level—is partly responsible for giving it the strongest hitter’s park effect in the major leagues due to the low air pressure.^[144] Wrigley Field, home of the Chicago Cubs, is known for its fickle disposition: a pitcher’s park when the strong winds off Lake Michigan are blowing in, it becomes more of a hitter’s park when they are blowing out.^[145] The absence of a standardized field affects not only how particular games play out, but the nature of team rosters and players’ statistical records. For example, hitting a fly ball 330 feet (100 m) into right field might result in an easy catch on the warning track at one park, and a home run at another. A team that plays in a park with a relatively short right field, such as the New York Yankees, will tend to stock its roster with left-handed pull hitters, who can best exploit it. On the individual level, a player who spends most of his career with a team that plays in a hitter’s park will gain an advantage in batting statistics over time—even more so if his talents are especially suited to the park.^[146]

Statistics

Further information: Baseball statistics

Organized baseball lends itself to statistics to a greater degree than many other sports. Each play is discrete and has a relatively small number of possible outcomes. In the late 19th century, a former cricket player, English-born Henry Chadwick of Brooklyn, was responsible for the “development of the box score, tabular standings, the annual baseball guide, the batting average, and most of the common statistics and tables used to describe baseball.”^[147] The statistical record is so central to the game’s “historical essence” that Chadwick came to be known as Father Baseball.^[147] In the 1920s, American newspapers began devoting more and more attention to baseball statistics, initiating what journalist and historian Alan Schwarz describes as a “tectonic shift in sports, as intrigue that once focused mostly on teams began to go to individual players and their statistics lines.”^[148]

The Official Baseball Rules administered by MLB require the official scorer to categorize each baseball play unambiguously. The rules provide detailed criteria to promote consistency. The score report is the official basis for both the box score of the game and the relevant statistical records.^[149] General managers, managers, and baseball scouts use statistics to evaluate players and make strategic decisions.

Certain traditional statistics are familiar to most baseball fans. The basic batting statistics include:^[150]

• At bats: plate appearances, excluding walks and hit by pitches—where the batter’s ability is not fully tested—and sacrifices and sacrifice flies—where the batter intentionally makes an out in order to advance one or more baserunners
• Hits: times a base is reached safely, because of a batted, fair ball without a fielding error or fielder’s choice
• Runs: times circling the bases and reaching home safely
• Runs batted in (RBIs): number of runners who scored due to a batter’s action (including the batter, in the case of a home run), except when batter grounded into double play or reached on an error
• Home runs: hits on which the batter successfully touched all four bases, without the contribution of a fielding error
• Batting average: hits divided by at bats—the traditional measure of batting ability

The basic baserunning statistics include:^[151]

• Stolen bases: times advancing to the next base entirely due to the runner’s own efforts, generally while the pitcher is preparing to deliver or delivering the ball
• Caught stealing: times tagged out while attempting to steal a base

The basic pitching statistics include:^[152]

• Wins: credited to pitcher on winning team who last pitched before the team took a lead that it never relinquished (a starting pitcher must pitch at least five innings to qualify for a win)
• Losses: charged to pitcher on losing team who was pitching when the opposing team took a lead that it never relinquished
• Saves: games where the pitcher enters a game led by the pitcher’s team, finishes the game without surrendering the lead, is not the winning pitcher, and either (a) the lead was three runs or less when the pitcher entered the game; (b) the potential tying run was on base, at bat, or on deck; or (c) the pitcher pitched three or more innings
• Innings pitched: outs recorded while pitching divided by three (partial innings are conventionally recorded as, e.g., “5.2” or “7.1”, the last digit actually representing thirds, not tenths, of an inning)
• Strikeouts: times pitching three strikes to a batter
• Winning percentage: wins divided by decisions (wins plus losses)
• Earned run average (ERA): runs allowed, excluding those resulting from fielding errors, per nine innings pitched

The basic fielding statistics include:^[153]

• Putouts: times the fielder catches a fly ball, tags or forces out a runner, or otherwise directly effects an out
• Assists: times a putout by another fielder was recorded following the fielder touching the ball
• Errors: times the fielder fails to make a play that should have been made with common effort, and the batting team benefits as a result
• Total chances: putouts plus assists plus errors
• Fielding average: successful chances (putouts plus assists) divided by total chances

Among the many other statistics that are kept are those collectively known as situational statistics. For example, statistics can indicate which specific pitchers a certain batter performs best against. If a given situation statistically favors a certain batter, the manager of the fielding team may be more likely to change pitchers or have the pitcher intentionally walk the batter in order to face one who is less likely to succeed.^[154]

Sabermetrics

Sabermetrics is the field of baseball statistical study and the development of new statistics and analytical tools. Such new statistics are also called sabermetrics. The term was coined around 1980 by one of the field’s leading proponents, Bill James, and derives from the Society for American Baseball Research (SABR).^[155]

The growing popularity of sabermetrics since the early 1980s has brought more attention to two batting statistics that sabermetricians argue are much better gauges of a batter’s skill than batting average:^[156]

• On-base percentage (OBP) measures a batter’s ability to get on base. It is calculated by taking the sum of the batter’s successes in getting on base (hits plus walks plus hit by pitches) and dividing that by the batter’s total plate appearances (at bats plus walks plus hit by pitches plus sacrifice flies), except for sacrifice bunts.^[157]
• Slugging percentage (SLG) measures a batter’s ability to hit for power. It is calculated by taking the batter’s total bases (one per each single, two per double, three per triple, and four per home run) and dividing that by the batter’s at bats.^[158]

Some of the new statistics devised by sabermetricians have gained wide use:

• On-base plus slugging (OPS) measures a batter’s overall ability. It is calculated by adding the batter’s on-base percentage and slugging percentage.^[159]
• Walks plus hits per inning pitched (WHIP) measures a pitcher’s ability at preventing hitters from reaching base. It is calculated by adding the number of walks and hits a pitcher surrendered, then dividing by the number of innings pitched.^[160]
• Wins Above Replacement (WAR) measures number of additional wins his team has achieved above the number of expected team wins if that player were substituted with a replacement-level player.^[161]

Popularity and cultural impact

Writing in 1919, philosopher Morris Raphael Cohen described baseball as the national religion of the US.^[162] In the words of sports columnist Jayson Stark, baseball has long been “a unique paragon of American culture”—a status he sees as devastated by the steroid abuse scandal.^[163] Baseball has an important place in other national cultures as well: Scholar Peter Bjarkman describes “how deeply the sport is ingrained in the history and culture of a nation such as Cuba, [and] how thoroughly it was radically reshaped and nativized in Japan.”^[164]

Western Hemisphere

American influence in the Western Hemisphere has meant that baseball grew significantly in the region.

In the United States

See also: Baseball in Canada

The major league game in the United States was originally targeted toward a middle-class, white-collar audience: relative to other spectator pastimes, the National League’s set ticket price of 50 cents in 1876 was high, while the location of playing fields outside the inner city and the workweek daytime scheduling of games were also obstacles to a blue-collar audience.^[165] A century later, the situation was very different. With the rise in popularity of other team sports with much higher average ticket prices—football, basketball, and hockey—professional baseball had become among the most popular blue-collar-oriented American spectator sports.^[166]

Overall, baseball has a large following in the United States; a 2006 poll found that nearly half of Americans are fans.^[167] This led to baseball being granted the title of “America’s favorite pastime” by many American baseball fans.^[168] The game was historically seen as contributing to the melting pot society of the nation, encouraging immigrants to integrate.^[169] In the late 1900s and early 2000s, baseball’s position compared to football in the United States moved in contradictory directions. In 2008, MLB set a revenue record of $6.5 billion, matching the NFL’s revenue for the first time in decades.^[170] A new MLB revenue record of more than $10 billion was set in 2017.^[171] On the other hand, the percentage of American sports fans polled who named baseball as their favorite sport was 9%, compared to pro football at 37%.^[172] In 1985, the respective figures were pro football 24%, baseball 23%.^[173] Because there are so many more major league games played, there is no comparison in overall attendance.^[174] In 2008, total attendance at major league games was the second-highest in history: 78.6 million, 0.7% off the record set the previous year.^[93] The following year, amid the U.S. recession, attendance fell by 6.6% to 73.4 million.^[175] Eight years later, it dropped under 73 million.^[176] Attendance at games held under the Minor League Baseball umbrella set a record in 2008, with 43.3 million.^[177] While MLB games have not drawn the same national TV viewership as football games, MLB games are dominant in teams’ local markets and regularly lead all programs in primetime in their markets during the summer.^[178]

Latin America

See also: Latin America–United States relations

Baseball is very popular in Venezuela; in 2011, 95% of people surveyed claimed it to be the national sport.^[179] The sport’s overall popularity in Latin America has assisted in integrating Latin American migrants to the United States.^[180]

In Brazil, baseball fan popularity has grown in last few years, thanks to MLB broadcasts in Brazilian ESPN and the historic silver medal in 2023 Pan-American games. although, it still lags behind Basketball and American Football in the list of most played sports in Brazil.^[181][182]

Caribbean

Since the early 1980s, the Dominican Republic, in particular the city of San Pedro de Macorís, has been the major leagues’ primary source of foreign talent.^[183] In 2017, 83 of the 868 players on MLB Opening Day rosters (and disabled lists) were from the country. Among other Caribbean countries and territories, a combined 97 MLB players were born in Venezuela, Cuba, and Puerto Rico.^[184] Hall-of-Famer Roberto Clemente remains one of the greatest national heroes in Puerto Rico’s history.^[185] While baseball has long been the island’s primary athletic pastime, its once well-attended professional winter league has declined in popularity since 1990, when young Puerto Rican players began to be included in the major leagues’ annual first-year player draft.^[186] In Cuba, where baseball is by every reckoning the national sport,^[187] the national team overshadows the city and provincial teams that play in the top-level domestic leagues.^[188]

Asia

In East Asia, baseball is among the most popular sports in Japan,^[189] Taiwan^[190] and South Korea.^[191] In Japan, where baseball is inarguably the leading spectator team sport, combined revenue for the twelve teams in Nippon Professional Baseball (NPB), the body that oversees both the Central and Pacific Leagues, was estimated at $1 billion in 2007. Total NPB attendance for the year was approximately 20 million. While in the preceding two decades, MLB attendance grew by 50 percent and revenue nearly tripled, the comparable NPB figures were stagnant. There are concerns that MLB’s growing interest in acquiring star Japanese players will hurt the game in their home country.^[192] Revenue figures are not released for the country’s amateur system. Similarly, according to one official pronouncement, the sport’s governing authority “has never taken into account attendance … because its greatest interest has always been the development of athletes”.^[193] In Taiwan, baseball is one of the most widely spectated sports, in tv and person.^[194]

Baseball has grown significantly in China in recent years, with MLB estimating in 2019 that there are 21 million active fans in the country.^[195]

Among children

As of 2018, Little League Baseball oversees leagues with close to 2.4 million participants in over 80 countries.^[196] The number of players has fallen since the 1990s, when 3 million children took part in Little League Baseball annually.^[197] Babe Ruth League teams have over 1 million participants.^[198] According to the president of the International Baseball Federation, between 300,000 and 500,000 women and girls play baseball around the world, including Little League and the introductory game of Tee Ball.^[199]

A varsity baseball team is an established part of physical education departments at most high schools and colleges in the United States.^[200] In 2015, nearly half a million high schoolers and over 34,000 collegians played on their schools’ baseball teams.^[201] By early in the 20th century, intercollegiate baseball was Japan’s leading sport. Today, high school baseball in particular is immensely popular there.^[202] The final rounds of the two annual tournaments—the National High School Baseball Invitational Tournament in the spring, and the even more important National High School Baseball Championship in the summer—are broadcast around the country. The tournaments are known, respectively, as Spring Koshien and Summer Koshien after the 55,000-capacity stadium where they are played.^[203] In Cuba, baseball is a mandatory part of the state system of physical education, which begins at age six. Talented children as young as seven are sent to special district schools for more intensive training—the first step on a ladder whose acme is the national baseball team.^[188]

In popular culture

Baseball has had a broad impact on popular culture, both in the United States and elsewhere. Dozens of English-language idioms have been derived from baseball; in particular, the game is the source of a number of widely used sexual euphemisms.^[205] The first networked radio broadcasts in North America were of the 1922 World Series: famed sportswriter Grantland Rice announced play-by-play from New York City’s Polo Grounds on WJZ–Newark, New Jersey, which was connected by wire to WGY–Schenectady, New York, and WBZ–Springfield, Massachusetts.^[206] The baseball cap has become a ubiquitous fashion item not only in the United States and Japan, but also in countries where the sport itself is not particularly popular, such as the United Kingdom.^[207]

Baseball has inspired many works of art and entertainment. One of the first major examples, Ernest Thayer‘s poem “Casey at the Bat“, appeared in 1888. A wry description of the failure of a star player in what would now be called a “clutch situation”, the poem became the source of vaudeville and other staged performances, audio recordings, film adaptations, and an opera, as well as a host of sequels and parodies in various media. There have been many baseball movies, including the Academy Award–winning The Pride of the Yankees (1942) and the Oscar nominees The Natural (1984) and Field of Dreams (1989). The American Film Institute‘s selection of the ten best sports movies includes The Pride of the Yankees at number 3 and Bull Durham (1988) at number 5.^[208] Baseball has provided thematic material for hits on both stage—the Adler–Ross musical Damn Yankees—and record—George J. Gaskin‘s “Slide, Kelly, Slide”, Simon and Garfunkel‘s “Mrs. Robinson“, and John Fogerty‘s “Centerfield“.^[209] The baseball-inspired comedic sketch “Who’s on First?“, popularized by Abbott and Costello in 1938, quickly became famous. Six decades later, Time named it the best comedy routine of the 20th century.^[210]

Literary works connected to the game include the short fiction of Ring Lardner and novels such as Bernard Malamud‘s The Natural (the source for the movie), Robert Coover‘s The Universal Baseball Association, Inc., J. Henry Waugh, Prop., John Grisham‘s Calico Joe and W. P. Kinsella‘s Shoeless Joe (the source for Field of Dreams). Baseball’s literary canon also includes the beat reportage of Damon Runyon; the columns of Grantland Rice, Red Smith, Dick Young, and Peter Gammons; and the essays of Roger Angell. Among the celebrated nonfiction books in the field are Lawrence S. Ritter‘s The Glory of Their Times, Roger Kahn‘s The Boys of Summer, and Michael Lewis‘s Moneyball. The 1970 publication of major league pitcher Jim Bouton‘s tell-all chronicle Ball Four is considered a turning point in the reporting of professional sports.^[211]

Baseball has also inspired the creation of new cultural forms. Baseball cards were introduced in the late 19th century as trade cards. A typical example featured an image of a baseball player on one side and advertising for a business on the other. In the early 1900s they were produced widely as promotional items by tobacco and confectionery companies. The 1930s saw the popularization of the modern style of baseball card, with a player photograph accompanied on the rear by statistics and biographical data. Baseball cards—many of which are now prized collectibles—are the source of the much broader trading card industry, involving similar products for different sports and non-sports-related fields.^[212]

Modern fantasy sports began in 1980 with the invention of Rotisserie League Baseball by New York writer Daniel Okrent and several friends. Participants in a Rotisserie league draft notional teams from the list of active MLB players and play out an entire imaginary season with game outcomes based on the players’ latest real-world statistics. Rotisserie-style play quickly became a phenomenon. Now known more generically as fantasy baseball, it has inspired similar games based on an array of different sports.^[213] The field boomed with increasing Internet access and new fantasy sports-related websites. By 2008, 29.9 million people in the United States and Canada were playing fantasy sports, spending $800 million on the hobby.^[214] The burgeoning popularity of fantasy baseball is also credited with the increasing attention paid to sabermetrics—first among fans, only later among baseball professionals.^[215]

Derivative games

Main article: Variations of baseball

Informal variations of baseball have popped up over time, with games like corkball reflecting local traditions and allowing the game to be played in diverse environments.^[216] Two variations of baseball, softball and Baseball5, are internationally governed alongside baseball by the World Baseball Softball Confederation.^[217]

British baseball

Main article: British baseball

American professional baseball teams toured Britain in 1874 and 1889, and had a great effect on similar sports in Britain. In Wales and Merseyside, a strong community game had already developed with skills and plays more in keeping with the American game and the Welsh began to informally adopt the name “baseball” (Pêl Fas), to reflect the American style. By the 1890s, calls were made to follow the success of other working class sports (like Rugby in Wales and Soccer in Merseyside) and adopt a distinct set of rules and bureaucracy.^[218] During the 1892 season rules for the game of “baseball” were agreed and the game was officially codified.^[219]

Finnish baseball

Main article: Pesäpallo

Finnish baseball, also known as pesäpallo, is a combination of traditional ball-batting team games and North American baseball, invented by Lauri “Tahko” Pihkala in the 1920s.^[220][221] The basic idea of pesäpallo is similar to that of baseball: the offense tries to score by hitting the ball successfully and running through the bases, while the defense tries to put the batter and runners out. One of the most important differences between pesäpallo and baseball is that the ball is pitched vertically, which makes hitting the ball, as well as controlling the power and direction of the hit, much easier. This gives the offensive game more variety, speed, and tactical aspects compared to baseball.^[220]

The tiger (Panthera tigris) is a large cat and a member of the genus Panthera native to Asia. It has a powerful, muscular body with a large head and paws, a long tail and orange fur with black, mostly vertical stripes. It is traditionally classified into nine recent subspecies, though some recognise only two subspecies, mainland Asian tigers and the island tigers of the Sunda Islands.

Throughout the tiger’s range, it inhabits mainly forests, from coniferous and temperate broadleaf and mixed forests in the Russian Far East and Northeast China to tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests on the Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asia. The tiger is an apex predator and preys mainly on ungulates, which it takes by ambush. It lives a mostly solitary life and occupies home ranges, defending these from individuals of the same sex. The range of a male tiger overlaps with that of multiple females with whom he mates. Females give birth to usually two or three cubs that stay with their mother for about two years. When becoming independent, they leave their mother’s home range and establish their own.

Since the early 20th century, tiger populations have lost at least 93% of their historic range and are locally extinct in West and Central Asia, in large areas of China and on the islands of Java and Bali. Today, the tiger’s range is severely fragmented. It is listed as Endangered on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species, as its range is thought to have declined by 53% to 68% since the late 1990s. Major threats to tigers are habitat destruction and fragmentation due to deforestation, poaching for fur and the illegal trade of body parts for medicinal purposes. Tigers are also victims of human–wildlife conflict as they attack and prey on livestock in areas where natural prey is scarce. The tiger is legally protected in all range countries. National conservation measures consist of action plans, anti-poaching patrols and schemes for monitoring tiger populations. In several range countries, wildlife corridors have been established and tiger reintroduction is planned.

The tiger is among the most popular of the world’s charismatic megafauna. It has been kept in captivity since ancient times and has been trained to perform in circuses and other entertainment shows. The tiger featured prominently in the ancient mythology and folklore of cultures throughout its historic range and has continued to appear in culture worldwide.

Etymology

The Old English tigras derives from Old French tigre, from Latin tigris, which was a borrowing from tigris (Ancient Greek: τίγρις).^[4] Since ancient times, the word tigris has been suggested to originate from the Armenian or Persian word for ‘arrow’, which may also be the origin of the name for the river Tigris.^[5][6] However, today, the names are thought to be homonyms, and the connection between the tiger and the river is doubted.^[6]

Taxonomy

In 1758, Carl Linnaeus described the tiger in his work Systema Naturae and gave it the scientific name Felis tigris, as the genus Felis was being used for all cats at the time. His scientific description was based on descriptions by earlier naturalists such as Conrad Gessner and Ulisse Aldrovandi.^[2] In 1929, Reginald Innes Pocock placed the species in the genus Panthera using the scientific name Panthera tigris.^[7][8]

Subspecies

Nine recent tiger subspecies have been proposed between the early 19th and early 21st centuries, namely the Bengal, Malayan, Indochinese, South China, Siberian, Caspian, Javan, Bali and Sumatran tigers.^[9][10] The validity of several tiger subspecies was questioned in 1999 as most putative subspecies were distinguished on the basis of fur length and colouration, striping patterns and body size of specimens in natural history museum collections that are not necessarily representative for the entire population. It was proposed to recognise only two tiger subspecies as valid, namely P. t. tigris in mainland Asia and the smaller P. t. sondaica in the Greater Sunda Islands.^[11]

This two-subspecies proposal was reaffirmed in 2015 through a comprehensive analysis of morphological, ecological and mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) traits of all putative tiger subspecies.^[10] In 2017, the Cat Classification Task Force of the IUCN Cat Specialist Group revised felid taxonomy in accordance with the 2015 two-subspecies proposal and recognised only P. t. tigris and P. t. sondaica.^[12] Results of a 2018 whole-genome sequencing study of 32 samples from the six living putative subspecies—the Bengal, Malayan, Indochinese, South China, Siberian and Sumatran tiger—found them to be distinct and separate clades.^[13] These results were corroborated in 2021 and 2023.^[14][15] The Cat Specialist Group states that “Given the varied interpretations of data, the [subspecific] taxonomy of this species is currently under review by the IUCN SSC Cat Specialist Group.”^[16]

The following tables are based on the classification of the tiger as of 2005,^[9] and also reflect the classification recognised by the Cat Classification Task Force in 2017.^[12]

Population	Description	Image
Bengal tiger formerly P. t. tigris (Linnaeus, 1758)[2]	This population inhabits the Indian subcontinent.[17] The Bengal tiger has shorter fur than tigers further north,[8] with a light tawny to orange-red colouration,[8][18] and relatively long and narrow nostrils.[19]
† Caspian tiger formerly P. t. virgata (Illiger, 1815)[20]	This population occurred from Turkey to around the Caspian Sea.[17] It had bright rusty-red fur with thin and closely spaced brownish stripes,[21] and a broad occipital bone.[11] Genetic analysis revealed that it was closely related to the Siberian tiger.[22] It has been extinct since the 1970s.[23]
Siberian tiger formerly P. t. altaica (Temminck, 1844)[24]	This population lives in the Russian Far East, Northeast China and possibly North Korea.[17] The Siberian tiger has long hair and dense fur.[24] Its ground colour varies widely from ochre-yellow in winter to more reddish and vibrant after moulting.[25] The skull is shorter and broader than the skulls of tigers further south.[19]
South China tiger formerly P. t. amoyensis (Hilzheimer, 1905)[26]	This tiger historically lived in south-central China.[17] The skulls of the five type specimens had shorter carnassials and molars than tigers from India, a smaller cranium, orbits set closer together and larger postorbital processes; skins were yellowish with rhombus-like stripes.[26] It has a unique mtDNA haplotype due to interbreeding with ancient tiger lineages.[12][27][28] It is extinct in the wild as there has not been a confirmed sighting since the 1970s,[1] and survives only in captivity.[15]
Indochinese tiger formerly P. t. corbetti (Mazák, 1968)[29]	This tiger population occurs on the Indochinese Peninsula.[17] Indochinese tiger specimens have smaller craniums than Bengal tigers and appear to have darker fur with somewhat thin stripes.[29][30]
Malayan tiger formerly P. t. jacksoni (Luo et al., 2004)[31]	The Malayan tiger was proposed as a distinct subspecies on the basis of mtDNA and micro-satellite sequences that differ from the Indochinese tiger.[31] It does not differ significantly in fur colour or skull size from Indochinese tigers.[30] There is no clear geographical barrier between tiger populations in northern Malaysia and southern Thailand.[1]

Population	Description	Image
†Javan tiger formerly P. t. sondaica (Temminck, 1944)[24]	This tiger was described based on an unspecified number of skins with short and smooth hair.[24] Tigers from Java were small compared to tigers of the Asian mainland, had relatively elongated skulls compared to the Sumatran tiger and longer, thinner and more numerous stripes.[30] The Javan tiger is thought to have gone extinct by the 1980s.[23]
†Bali tiger formerly P. t. balica (Schwarz, 1912)[32]	This tiger occurred on Bali and had brighter fur and a smaller skull than the Javan tiger.[32][33] A typical feature of Bali tiger skulls is the narrow occipital bone, which is similar to the Javan tiger’s skull.[34] This population went extinct in the 1940s.[23]
Sumatran tiger formerly P. t. sumatrae (Pocock, 1929)[35]	The type specimen from Sumatra had dark fur.[35] The Sumatran tiger has particularly long hair around the face,[17] thick body stripes and a broader and smaller nasal bone than other island tigers.[30]

Evolution

PantheraSnow leopard Tiger Jaguar Leopard Lion

Phylogeny of the genus Panthera based on a 2016 nuclear DNA study[36]

The tiger shares the genus Panthera with the lion, leopard, jaguar and snow leopard. Results of genetic analyses indicate that the tiger and snow leopard are sister species whose lineages split from each other between 2.70 and 3.70 million years ago.^[37] The tiger’s whole genome sequencing shows repeated sequences that parallel those in other cat genomes.^[38]

The fossil species Panthera palaeosinensis of early Pleistocene northern China was described as a possible tiger ancestor when it was discovered in 1924, but modern cladistics places it as basal to modern Panthera.^[39][40] Panthera zdanskyi lived around the same time and place, and was suggested to be a sister species of the modern tiger when it was examined in 2014.^[39] However, as of 2023, at least two subsequent studies considered P. zdanskyi likely to be a synonym of P. palaeosinensis, noting that its proposed differences from that species fell within the range of individual variation.^[41][42] The earliest appearance of the modern tiger species in the fossil record are jaw fragments from Lantion in China that are dated to the early Pleistocene.^[39]

Middle- to late-Pleistocene tiger fossils have been found throughout China, Sumatra and Java. Prehistoric subspecies include Panthera tigris trinilensis and P. t. soloensis of Java and Sumatra and P. t. acutidens of China; late Pleistocene and early Holocene fossils of tigers have also been found in Borneo and Palawan, Philippines.^[43] Fossil specimens of tigers have also been reported from the Middle-Late Pleistocene of Japan.^[44] Results of a phylogeographic study indicate that all living tigers have a common ancestor that lived between 108,000 and 72,000 years ago.^[31] Genetic studies suggest that the tiger population contracted around 115,000 years ago due to glaciation. Modern tiger populations originated from a refugium in Indochina and spread across Asia after the Last Glacial Maximum. As they colonised northeastern China, the ancestors of the South China tiger intermixed with a relict tiger population.^[28][27]

Hybrids

Further information: Felid hybrids and Panthera hybrid

Tigers can interbreed with other Panthera cats and have done so in captivity. The liger is the offspring of a female tiger and a male lion and the tigon the offspring of a male tiger and a female lion.^[45] The lion sire passes on a growth-promoting gene, but the corresponding growth-inhibiting gene from the female tiger is absent, so that ligers grow far larger than either parent species. By contrast, the male tiger does not pass on a growth-promoting gene while the lioness passes on a growth inhibiting gene; hence, tigons are around the same size as their parents.^[46] Since they often develop life-threatening birth defects and can easily become obese, breeding these hybrids is regarded as unethical.^[45]

Characteristics

The tiger has a typical felid morphology, with a muscular body, shortened legs, strong forelimbs with wide front paws, a large head and a tail that is about half the length of the rest of its body.^[47][48] It has five digits, including a dewclaw, on the front feet and four on the back, all of which have retractile claws that are compact and curved, and can reach 10 cm (3.9 in) long.^[47][49] The ears are rounded and the eyes have a round pupil.^[47] The snout ends in a triangular, pink tip with small black dots, the number of which increase with age.^[50] The tiger’s skull is robust, with a constricted front region, proportionally small, elliptical orbits, long nasal bones and a lengthened cranium with a large sagittal crest.^[51][47] It resembles a lion’s skull, but differs from it in the concave or flattened underside of the lower jaw and in its longer nasals.^[51][43] The tiger has 30 fairly robust teeth and its somewhat curved canines are the longest in the cat family at 6.4–7.6 cm (2.5–3.0 in).^[47][52]

The tiger has a head-body length of 1.4–2.8 m (4 ft 7 in – 9 ft 2 in) with a 0.6–1.1 m (2 ft 0 in – 3 ft 7 in) tail and stands 0.8–1.1 m (2 ft 7 in – 3 ft 7 in) at the shoulder.^[53] The Siberian and Bengal tigers are the largest.^[47] Male Bengal tigers weigh 200–260 kg (440–570 lb), and females weigh 100–160 kg (220–350 lb); island tigers are the smallest, likely due to insular dwarfism.^[11] Male Sumatran tigers weigh 100–140 kg (220–310 lb), and females weigh 75–110 kg (165–243 lb).^[54] The tiger is popularly thought to be the largest living felid species; but since tigers of the different subspecies and populations vary greatly in size and weight, the tiger’s average size may be less than the lion’s, while the largest tigers are bigger than their lion counterparts.^[43]

Coat

The tiger’s coat usually has short hairs, reaching up to 35 mm (1.4 in), though the hairs of the northern-living Siberian tiger can reach 105 mm (4.1 in). Belly hairs tend to be longer than back hairs. The density of their fur is usually thin, though the Siberian tiger develops a particularly thick winter coat. The tiger has lines of fur around the face and long whiskers, especially in males.^[47] It has an orange colouration that varies from yellowish to reddish.^[55] White fur covers the underside, from head to tail, along with the inner surface of the legs and parts of the face.^[47][56] On the back of the ears, it has a prominent white spot, which is surrounded by black.^[47] The tiger is marked with distinctive black or dark brown stripes, which are uniquely patterned in each individual.^[47][57] The stripes are mostly vertical, but those on the limbs and forehead are horizontal. They are more concentrated towards the backside and those on the trunk may reach under the belly. The tips of stripes are generally sharp and some may split up or split and fuse again. Tail stripes are thick bands and a black tip marks the end.^[56]

The tiger is one of only a few striped cat species.^[58] Stripes are advantageous for camouflage in vegetation with vertical patterns of light and shade, such as trees, reeds and tall grass.^[57][59] This is supported by a Fourier analysis study showing that the striping patterns line up with their environment.^[60] The orange colour may also aid in concealment, as the tiger’s prey is colour blind and possibly perceives the tiger as green and blended in with the vegetation.^[61]

Colour variations

The three colour variants of Bengal tigers – nearly stripeless snow-white, white and golden – are now virtually non-existent in the wild due to the reduction of wild tiger populations but continue in captive populations. The white tiger has a white background colour with sepia-brown stripes. The golden tiger is pale golden with reddish-brown stripes. The snow-white tiger is a morph with extremely faint stripes and a pale sepia-brown ringed tail. White and golden morphs are the result of an autosomal recessive trait with a white locus and a wideband locus, respectively. The snow-white variation is caused by polygenes with both white and wideband loci.^[62] The breeding of white tigers is controversial, as they have no use for conservation. Only 0.001% of wild tigers have the genes for this colour morph and the overrepresentation of white tigers in captivity is the result of inbreeding. Hence, their continued breeding will risk both inbreeding depression and loss of genetic variability in captive tigers.^[63]

Pseudo-melanistic tigers with thick, merged stripes have been recorded in Simlipal National Park and three Indian zoos; a population genetic analysis of Indian tiger samples revealed that this phenotype is caused by a mutation of a transmembrane aminopeptidase gene. Around 37% of the Simlipal tiger population has this feature, which has been linked to genetic isolation.^[64]

Distribution and habitat

The tiger historically ranged from eastern Turkey, northern Iran and Afghanistan to Central Asia and from northern Pakistan through the Indian subcontinent and Indochina to southeastern Siberia, Sumatra, Java and Bali.^[47] As of 2022, it inhabits less than 7% of its historical distribution and has a scattered range in the Indian subcontinent, the Indochinese Peninsula, Sumatra, northeastern China and the Russian Far East.^[1] As of 2020, India had the largest extent of global tiger habitat with 300,508 km² (116,027 sq mi), followed by Russia with 195,819 km² (75,606 sq mi).^[65]

The tiger mainly lives in forest habitats and is highly adaptable.^[54] Records in Central Asia indicate that it primarily inhabited Tugay riverine forests and hilly and lowland forests in the Caucasus.^[66] In the Amur–Ussuri region of Russia and China, it inhabits Korean pine and temperate broadleaf and mixed forests; riparian forests serve as dispersal corridors, providing food and water for both tigers and ungulates.^[67] On the Indian subcontinent, it inhabits mainly tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests, temperate broadleaf and mixed forests, tropical moist evergreen forests, tropical dry forests, alluvial plains and the mangrove forests of the Sundarbans.^[68] In the Eastern Himalayas, it was documented in temperate forest up to an elevation of 4,200 m (13,800 ft) in Bhutan, of 3,630 m (11,910 ft) in the Mishmi Hills and of 3,139 m (10,299 ft) in Mêdog County, southeastern Tibet.^[69][70][71] In Thailand, it lives in deciduous and evergreen forests.^[72] In Sumatra, it inhabits lowland peat swamp forests and rugged montane forests.^[73]

Population density

Camera trapping during 2010–2015 in the deciduous and subtropical pine forest of Jim Corbett National Park, northern India revealed a stable tiger population density of 12–17 individuals per 100 km² (39 sq mi) in an area of 521 km² (201 sq mi).^[74] In northern Myanmar, the population density in a sampled area of roughly 3,250 km² (1,250 sq mi) in a mosaic of tropical broadleaf forest and grassland was estimated to be 0.21–0.44 tigers per 100 km² (39 sq mi) as of 2009.^[75] Population density in mixed deciduous and semi-evergreen forests of Thailand’s Huai Kha Khaeng Wildlife Sanctuary was estimated at 2.01 tigers per 100 km² (39 sq mi); during the 1970s and 1980s, logging and poaching had occurred in the adjacent Mae Wong and Khlong Lan National Parks, where population density was much lower, estimated at only 0.359 tigers per 100 km² (39 sq mi) as of 2016.^[76] Population density in dipterocarp and montane forests in northern Malaysia was estimated at 1.47–2.43 adult tigers per 100 km² (39 sq mi) in Royal Belum State Park, but 0.3–0.92 adult tigers per 100 km² (39 sq mi) in the unprotected selectively logged Temengor Forest Reserve.^[77]

Behaviour and ecology

Camera trap data show that tigers in Chitwan National Park avoided locations frequented by people and were more active at night than during day.^[78] In Sundarbans National Park, six radio-collared tigers were most active from dawn to early morning and reached their zenith around 7:00 o’clock in the morning.^[79] A three-year-long camera trap survey in Shuklaphanta National Park revealed that tigers were most active from dusk until midnight.^[80] In northeastern China, tigers were crepuscular and active at night with activity peaking at dawn and dusk; they were largely active at the same time as their prey.^[81]

The tiger is a powerful swimmer and easily transverses rivers as wide as 8 km (5.0 mi); it immerses in water, particularly on hot days.^[57] In general, it is less capable of climbing trees than many other cats due to its size, but cubs under 16 months old may routinely do so.^[82] An adult was recorded climbing 10 m (33 ft) up a smooth pipal tree.^[47]

Social spacing

Adult tigers lead largely solitary lives within home ranges or territories, the size of which mainly depends on prey abundance, geographic area and sex of the individual. Males and females defend their home ranges from those of the same sex and the home range of a male encompasses that of multiple females.^[47][57] Two females in the Sundarbans had home ranges of 10.6 and 14.1 km² (4.1 and 5.4 sq mi).^[83] In Panna Tiger Reserve, the home ranges of five reintroduced females varied from 53–67 km² (20–26 sq mi) in winter to 55–60 km² (21–23 sq mi) in summer and to 46–94 km² (18–36 sq mi) during the monsoon; three males had 84–147 km² (32–57 sq mi) large home ranges in winter, 82–98 km² (32–38 sq mi) in summer and 81–118 km² (31–46 sq mi) during monsoon seasons.^[84] In Sikhote-Alin Biosphere Reserve, 14 females had home ranges 248–520 km² (96–201 sq mi) and five resident males of 847–1,923 km² (327–742 sq mi) that overlapped with those of up to five females.^[85] When tigresses in the same reserve had cubs of up to four months of age, they reduced their home ranges to stay near their young and steadily enlarged them until their offspring were 13–18 months old.^[86]

Bengal tigers spraying urine (above) and rubbing against a tree to mark territory

The tiger is a long-ranging species and individuals disperse over distances of up to 650 km (400 mi) to reach tiger populations in other areas.^[87] Young tigresses establish their first home ranges close to their mothers’ while males migrate further than their female counterparts.^[88] Four radio-collared females in Chitwan dispersed between 0 and 43.2 km (0.0 and 26.8 mi) and 10 males between 9.5 and 65.7 km (5.9 and 40.8 mi).^[89] A subadult male lives as a transient in another male’s home range until he is older and strong enough to challenge the resident male.^[88][90] Tigers mark their home ranges by spraying urine on vegetation and rocks, clawing or scent rubbing trees and marking trails with faeces, anal gland secretions and ground scrapings.^{[57][91][92][93]} Scent markings also allow an individual to pick up information on another’s identity. Unclaimed home ranges, particularly those that belonged to a deceased individual, can be taken over in days or weeks.^[57]

Male tigers are generally less tolerant of other males within their home ranges than females are of other females. Disputes are usually solved by intimidation rather than fighting. Once dominance has been established, a male may tolerate a subordinate within his range, as long as they do not come near him. The most serious disputes tend to occur between two males competing for a female in oestrus.^[94] Though tigers mostly live alone, relationships between individuals can be complex. Tigers are particularly social at kills and a male tiger will sometimes share a carcass with the females and cubs within this home range and unlike male lions, will allow them to feed on the kill before he is finished with it. However, a female is more tense when encountering another female at a kill.^[95][96]

Communication

Siberian tiger baring teeth as a sign of aggression

Captive Sumatran tiger roaring

During friendly encounters and bonding, tigers rub against each other’s bodies.^[97] Facial expressions include the “defence threat”, which involves a wrinkled face, bared teeth, pulled-back ears and widened pupils.^[98][47] Both males and females show a flehmen response, a characteristic curled-lip grimace, when smelling urine markings. Males also use the flehmen to detect the markings made by tigresses in oestrus.^[47] Tigers will move their ears around to display the white spots, particularly during aggressive encounters and between mothers and cubs.^[99] They also use their tails to signal their mood. To show cordiality, the tail sticks up and sways slowly, while an apprehensive tiger lowers its tail or wags it side-to-side. When calm, the tail hangs low.^[100]

Tigers are normally silent but can produce numerous vocalisations.^[101][102] They roar to signal their presence to other individuals over long distances. This vocalisation is forced through an open mouth as it closes and can be heard 3 km (1.9 mi) away. They roar multiple times in a row and others respond in kind. Tigers also roar during mating and a mother will roar to call her cubs to her. When tense, tigers moan, a sound similar to a roar but softer and made when the mouth is at least partially closed. Moaning can be heard 400 m (1,300 ft) away.^[47][103] Aggressive encounters involve growling, snarling and hissing.^[104] An explosive “coughing roar” or “coughing snarl” is emitted through an open mouth and exposed teeth.^{[47][104][99]} In friendlier situations, tigers prusten, a soft, low-frequency snorting sound similar to purring in smaller cats.^[105] Tiger mothers communicate with their cubs by grunting, while cubs call back with miaows.^[106] When startled, they “woof”. They produce a deer-like “pok” sound for unknown reasons, but most often at kills.^[107][108]

Hunting and diet

The tiger is a carnivore and an apex predator feeding mainly on large and medium-sized ungulates, with a preference for sambar deer, Manchurian wapiti, barasingha, gaur and wild boar.^{[109][110][111]} Abundance and body weight of prey species are assumed to be the main criteria for the tiger’s prey selection, both inside and outside protected areas.^[112] It also preys opportunistically on smaller species like monkeys, peafowl and other ground-based birds, porcupines and fish.^[47][57] Occasional attacks on Asian elephants and Indian rhinoceroses have also been reported.^[113] More often, tigers take the more vulnerable calves.^[114] They sometimes prey on livestock and dogs in close proximity to settlements.^[47] Tigers occasionally consume vegetation, fruit and minerals for dietary fibre and supplements.^[115]

Tigers learn to hunt from their mothers, though the ability to hunt may be partially inborn.^[116] Depending on the size of the prey, they typically kill weekly though mothers must kill more often.^[54] Families hunt together when cubs are old enough.^[117] They search for prey using vision and hearing.^[118] A tiger will also wait at a watering hole for prey to come by, particularly during hot summer days.^[119][120] It is an ambush predator and when approaching potential prey, it crouches with the head lowered and hides in foliage. It switches between creeping forward and staying still. A tiger may even doze off and can stay in the same spot for as long as a day, waiting for prey and launch an attack when the prey is close enough,^[121] usually within 30 m (98 ft).^[54] If the prey spots it before then, the cat does not pursue further.^[119] A tiger can sprint 56 km/h (35 mph) and leap 10 m (33 ft);^[122][123] it is not a long-distance runner and gives up a chase if prey outpaces it over a certain distance.^[119]

The tiger attacks from behind or at the sides and tries to knock the target off balance. It latches onto prey with its forelimbs, twisting and turning during the struggle and tries to pull it to the ground. The tiger generally applies a bite to the throat until its victim dies of strangulation.^{[47][124][125][126]} It has an average bite force at the canine tips of 1234.3 newtons.^[127] Holding onto the throat puts the cat out of reach of horns, antlers, tusks and hooves.^[124][128] Tigers are adaptable killers and may use other methods, including ripping the throat or breaking the neck. Large prey may be disabled by a bite to the back of the hock, severing the tendon. Swipes from the large paws are capable of stunning or breaking the skull of a water buffalo.^[129] They kill small prey with a bite to the back of the neck or head.^[130][54] Estimates of the success rate for hunting tigers range from a low of 5% to a high of 50%. They are sometimes killed or injured by large or dangerous prey like gaur, buffalo and boar.^[54]

Tigers typically move kills to a private, usually vegetated spot no further than 183 m (600 ft), though they have been recorded dragging them 549 m (1,801 ft). They are strong enough to drag the carcass of a fully grown buffalo for some distance. They rest for a while before eating and can consume as much as 50 kg (110 lb) of meat in one session, but feed on a carcass for several days, leaving little for scavengers.^[131]

Competitors

In much of their range, tigers share habitat with leopards and dholes. They typically dominate both of them, though with dholes it depends on their pack size. Interactions between the three predators involve chasing, stealing kills and direct killing.^[132] Large dhole packs may kill tigers.^[133] Tigers, leopards and dholes coexist by hunting different sized prey.^[134] In Nagarhole National Park, the average weight for tiger kills was found to be 91.5 kg (202 lb), compared to 37.6 kg (83 lb) for leopards and 43.4 kg (96 lb) for dholes.^[135] In Kui Buri National Park, following a reduction in prey numbers, tigers continued to kill favoured prey while leopards and dholes increased their consumption of small prey.^[110]

Both leopards and dholes can live successfully in tiger habitat when there is abundant food and vegetation cover.^[134][136] Otherwise, they appear to be less common where tigers are numerous. The recovery of the tiger population in Rajaji National Park during the 2000s led to a reduction in leopard population densities.^[137] Similarly, at two sites in central India the size of dhole packs was negatively correlated with tiger densities.^[138] Leopard and dhole distribution in Kui Buri correlated with both prey access and tiger scarcity.^[139] In Jigme Dorji National Park, tigers were found to inhabit the deeper parts of forests while the smaller predators were pushed closer to the fringes.^[140]

Reproduction and life cycle

“Tiger cub” redirects here. For other uses, see Tiger Cub.

The tiger generally mates all year round, particularly between November and April. A tigress is in oestrus for three to six days at a time, separated by three to nine week intervals.^[47] A resident male mates with all the females within his home range, who signal their receptiveness by roaring and marking.^[141][142] Younger, transient males are also attracted, leading to a fight in which the more dominant, resident male drives the usurper off.^[143][141] During courtship, the male is cautious with the female as he waits for her to show signs she is ready to mate. She signals to him by positioning herself in lordosis with her tail to the side. Copulation typically lasts no more than 20 seconds, with the male biting the female by the scruff of her neck. After it is finished, the male quickly pulls away as the female may turn and slap him.^[141] Tiger pairs may stay together for up to four days and mate multiple times.^[144] Gestation lasts around or over three months.^[47]

A tigress gives birth in a secluded location, be it in dense vegetation, in a cave or under a rocky shelter.^[145] Litters consist of as many as seven cubs, but two or three are more typical.^[143][145] Newborn cubs weigh 785–1,610 g (27.7–56.8 oz) and are blind and altricial.^[145] The mother licks and cleans her cubs, suckles them and viciously defends them from any potential threat.^[143] Cubs open their eyes at the age of three to 14 days and their vision becomes clear after a few more weeks.^[145] They can leave the denning site after two months and around the same time they start eating meat.^[143][146] The mother only leaves them alone to hunt and even then she does not travel far.^[147] When she suspects an area is no longer safe, she moves her cubs to a new spot, transporting them one by one by grabbing them by the scruff of the neck with her mouth.^[148] A tigress in Sikhote-Alin Biosphere Reserve maximised the time spent with her cubs by reducing her home range, killing larger prey and returning to her den more rapidly than without cubs; when the cubs started to eat meat, she took them to kill sites, thereby optimising their protection and access to food.^[149] In the same reserve, one of 21 cubs died in over eight years of monitoring and mortality did not differ between male and female juveniles.^[150] Tiger monitoring over six years in Ranthambore Tiger Reserve indicated an average annual survival rate of around 85 percent for 74 male and female cubs; survival rate increased to 97 percent for both males and female juveniles of one to two years of age.^[151] Causes of cub mortality include predators, floods, fires, death of the mother and fatal injuries.^{[148][152][153][151]}

After around two months, the cubs are able to follow their mother. They still hide in vegetation when she goes hunting. Young bond through play fighting and practice stalking. A hierarchy develops in the litter, with the biggest cub, often a male, being the most dominant and the first to eat its fill at a kill.^[154] Around the age of six months, cubs are fully weaned and have more freedom to explore their environment. Between eight and ten months, they accompany their mother on hunts.^[117] A cub can make a kill as early as 11 months and reach independence as a juvenile of 18 to 24 months of age; males become independent earlier than females.^[155][151] Radio-collared tigers in Chitwan started leaving their natal areas at the age of 19 months.^[89] Young females are sexually mature at three to four years, whereas males are at four to five years.^[47] Generation length of the tiger is about 7–10 years.^[156] Wild Bengal tigers live 12–15 years.^[157] Data from the International Tiger Studbook 1938–2018 indicate that captive tigers lived up to 19 years.^[158]

The father does not play a role in raising the young, but he encounters and interacts with them. The resident male appears to visit the female–cub families within his home range. They socialise and even share kills.^[159][160] One male was recorded looking after cubs whose mother had died.^[161] By defending his home range, the male protects the females and cubs from other males.^[162] When a new male takes over, dependent cubs are at risk of infanticide as the male attempts to sire his own young with the females.^[163] A seven-year long study in Chitwan National Park revealed that 12 of 56 detected cubs and juveniles were killed by new males taking over home ranges.^[153]

Health and diseases

Tigers are recorded as hosts for various parasites including tapeworms like Diphyllobothrium erinacei, Taenia pisiformis in India and nematodes like Toxocara species in India and Physaloptera preputialis, Dirofilaria ursi and Uiteinarta species in Siberia.^[47] Canine distemper is known to occur in Siberian tigers.^[164] A morbillivirus infection was the likely cause of death of a tigress in the Russian Far East that was also tested positive for feline panleukopenia and feline coronavirus.^[165] Blood samples from 11 adult tigers in Nepal showed antibodies for canine parvovirus-2, feline herpesvirus, feline coronavirus, leptospirosis and Toxoplasma gondii.^[166]

Threats

The tiger has been listed as Endangered on the IUCN Red List since 1986 and the global tiger population is thought to have continuously declined from an estimated population of 5,000–8,262 tigers in the late 1990s to 3,726–5,578 individuals estimated as of 2022.^[1] During 2001–2020, landscapes where tigers live declined from 1,025,488 km² (395,943 sq mi) to 911,901 km² (352,087 sq mi).^[65] Habitat destruction, habitat fragmentation and poaching for fur and body parts are the major threats that contributed to the decrease of tiger populations in all range countries.^[1]

Protected areas in central India are highly fragmented due to linear infrastructure like roads, railway lines, transmission lines, irrigation channels and mining activities in their vicinity.^[167] In the Tanintharyi Region of southern Myanmar, deforestation coupled with mining activities and high hunting pressure threatens the tiger population.^[168] In Thailand, nine of 15 protected areas hosting tigers are isolated and fragmented, offering a low probability for dispersal between them; four of these have not harboured tigers since about 2013.^[169] In Peninsular Malaysia, 8,315.7 km² (3,210.7 sq mi) of tiger habitat was cleared during 1988–2012, most of it for industrial plantations.^[170] Large-scale land acquisitions of about 23,000 km² (8,900 sq mi) for commercial agriculture and timber extraction in Cambodia contributed to the fragmentation of potential tiger habitat, especially in the Eastern Plains.^[171] Inbreeding depression coupled with habitat destruction, insufficient prey resources and poaching is a threat to the small and isolated tiger population in the Changbai Mountains along the China–Russia border.^[172] In China, tigers became the target of large-scale ‘anti-pest’ campaigns in the early 1950s, where suitable habitats were fragmented following deforestation and resettlement of people to rural areas, who hunted tigers and prey species. Though tiger hunting was prohibited in 1977, the population continued to decline and is considered extinct in South China since 2001.^[173][174]

Tiger populations in India have been targeted by poachers since the 1990s and were extirpated in two tiger reserves in 2005 and 2009.^[175] Between March 2017 and January 2020, 630 activities of hunters using snares, drift nets, hunting platforms and hunting dogs were discovered in a reserve forest of about 1,000 km² (390 sq mi) in southern Myanmar.^[176] Nam Et-Phou Louey National Park was considered the last important site for the tiger in Laos, but it has not been recorded there at least since 2013; this population likely fell victim to indiscriminate snaring.^[177] Anti-poaching units in Sumatra’s Kerinci Seblat landscape removed 362 tiger snare traps and seized 91 tiger skins during 2005–2016; annual poaching rates increased with rising skin prices.^[178] Poaching is also the main threat to the tiger population in far eastern Russia, where logging roads facilitate access for poachers and people harvesting forest products that are important for prey species to survive in winter.^[179]

Body parts of 207 tigers were detected during 21 surveys in 1991–2014 in two wildlife markets in Myanmar catering to customers in Thailand and China.^[180] During the years 2000–2022, at least 3,377 tigers were confiscated in 2,205 seizures in 28 countries; seizures encompassed 665 live and 654 dead individuals, 1,313 whole tiger skins, 16,214 body parts like bones, teeth, paws, claws, whiskers and 1.1 t (1.1 long tons; 1.2 short tons) of meat; 759 seizures in India encompassed body parts of 893 tigers; and 403 seizures in Thailand involved mostly captive-bred tigers.^[181] Seizures in Nepal between January 2011 and December 2015 obtained 585 pieces of tiger body parts and two whole carcasses in 19 districts.^[182] Seizure data from India during 2001–2021 indicate that tiger skins were the most often traded body parts, followed by claws, bones and teeth; trafficking routes mainly passed through the states of Maharashtra, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Assam.^[183] A total of 292 illegal tiger parts were confiscated at US ports of entry from personal baggage, air cargo and mail between 2003 and 2012.^[184]

Demand for tiger parts for use in traditional Chinese medicine has also been cited as a major threat to tiger populations.^[185] Interviews with local people in the Bangladeshi Sundarbans revealed that they kill tigers for local consumption and trade of skins, bones and meat, in retaliation for attacks by tigers and for excitement.^[186] Tiger body parts like skins, bones, teeth and hair are consumed locally by wealthy Bangladeshis and are illegally trafficked from Bangladesh to 15 countries including India, China, Malaysia, Korea, Vietnam, Cambodia, Japan and the United Kingdom via land borders, airports and seaports.^[187] Tiger bone glue is the prevailing tiger product purchased for medicinal purposes in Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City.^[188] “Tiger farm” facilities in China and Southeast Asia breed tigers for their parts, but these appear to make the threat to wild populations worse by increasing the demand for tiger products.^[189]

Local people killing tigers in retaliation for attacking and preying on livestock is a threat in several tiger range countries, as this consequence of human–wildlife conflict also contributes to the decline of the population.^{[190][191][192][193][194]}

Conservation

Main article: Tiger conservation

Further information: 21st Century Tiger

Country	Year	Estimate
India	2022	3,167–3,682[195]
Russia	2022	573–600[196]
Indonesia	2022	393[196]
Nepal	2022	316–355[197]
Thailand	2022	148–189[196]
Malaysia	2022	<150[196]
Bhutan	2022	131[198]
Bangladesh	2022	118–122[199]
China	2022	>60[196]
Myanmar	2022	28[196]
Total		5,638–5,899

Internationally, the tiger is protected under CITES Appendix I, banning trade of live tigers and their body parts.^[1] In Russia, hunting the tiger has been banned since 1952.^[200] In Bhutan, it has been protected since 1969 and enlisted as totally protected since 1995.^[201] Since 1972, it has been afforded the highest protection level under India’s Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972.^[202] In Nepal and Bangladesh, it has been protected since 1973.^[202][187] Since 1976, it has been totally protected under Malaysia’s Protection of Wild Life Act,^[203] and the country’s Wildlife Conservation Act enacted in 2010 increased punishments for wildlife-related crimes.^[196] In Indonesia, it has been protected since 1990.^[204] In China, the trade in tiger body parts was banned in 1993.^[205] The Thai Wildlife Preservation and Protection Act was enacted in 2019 to combat poaching and trading of body parts.^[206]

In 1973, the National Tiger Conservation Authority and Project Tiger were founded in India to gain public support for tiger conservation.^[175] Since then, 53 tiger reserves covering an area of 75,796 km² (29,265 sq mi) have been established in the country up to 2022.^[195] These efforts contributed to the recovery of India’s tiger population between 2006 and 2018 so that it occurs in an area of about 138,200 km² (53,400 sq mi).^[207]

Myanmar’s national tiger conservation strategy developed in 2003 comprises management tasks such as restoration of degraded habitats, increasing the extent of protected areas and wildlife corridors, protecting tiger prey species, thwarting tiger killing and illegal trade of its body parts and promoting public awareness through wildlife education programmes.^[208] Bhutan’s first Tiger Action Plan implemented during 2006–2015 revolved around habitat conservation, human–wildlife conflict management, education and awareness; the second Action Plan aimed at increasing the country’s tiger population by 20% until 2023 compared to 2015.^[201] In 2009, the Bangladesh Tiger Action Plan was initiated to stabilise the country’s tiger population, maintain habitat and a sufficient prey base, improve law enforcement and foster cooperation between governmental agencies responsible for tiger conservation.^[209] The Thailand Tiger Action Plan ratified in 2010 envisioned increasing the country’s tiger populations by 50% in the Western Forest Complex and Dong Phayayen–Khao Yai Forest Complex and reestablish populations in three potential landscapes until 2022.^[210] The Indonesian National Tiger Recovery Program ratified in 2010 aimed at increasing the Sumatran tiger population by 2022.^[211] The third strategic and action plan for the conservation of the Sumatran tiger for the years 2020–2030 revolves around strengthening management of small tiger population units of less than 20 mature individuals and connectivity between 13 forest patches in North Sumatra and West Sumatra provinces.^[212]

Increases in anti-poaching patrol efforts in four Russian protected areas during 2011–2014 contributed to reducing poaching, stabilising the tiger population and improving protection of ungulate populations.^[213] Poaching and trafficking were declared to be moderate and serious crimes in 2019.^[196] Anti-poaching operations were also established in Nepal in 2010, with increased cooperation and intelligence sharing between agencies. These policies have led to many years of “zero poaching” and the country’s tiger population has doubled in a decade.^[196] Anti-poaching patrols in the 1,200 km² (460 sq mi) large core area of Taman Negara lead to a decrease of poaching frequency from 34 detected incidents in 2015–2016 to 20 incidents during 2018–2019; the arrest of seven poaching teams and removal of snares facilitated the survival of three resident female tigers and at least 11 cubs.^[214] Army and police officers are deployed for patrolling together with staff of protected areas in Malaysia.^[196]

Wildlife corridors are important conservation measures as they facilitate tiger populations to connect between protected areas; tigers use at least nine corridors that were established in the Terai Arc Landscape and Sivalik Hills in both Nepal and India.^[215] Corridors in forested areas with low human encroachment are highly suitable.^[216][217] In West Sumatra, 12 wildlife corridors were identified as high priority for mitigating human–wildlife conflicts.^[218] In 2019, China and Russia signed a memorandum of understanding for transboundary cooperation between two protected areas, Northeast China Tiger and Leopard National Park and Land of the Leopard National Park, that includes the creation of wildlife corridors and bilateral monitoring and patrolling along the Sino-Russian border.^[219]

Rescued and rehabilitated problem tigers and orphaned tiger cubs have been released into the wild and monitored in India, Sumatra and Russia.^{[84][220][221]} In Kazakhstan, habitat restoration and reintroduction of prey species in Ile-Balkash Nature Reserve have progressed and tiger reintroduction is planned for 2025.^[222] Reintroduction of tigers is considered possible in eastern Cambodia, once management of protected areas is improved and forest loss stabilized.^[223] South China tigers are kept and bred in Chinese zoos, with plans to reintroduce their offspring into remote protected areas.^[15][116] Coordinated breeding programs among zoos have led to enough genetic diversity in tigers to act as “insurance against extinction in the wild”.^[224]

Relationship with humans

Hunting

Main article: Tiger hunting

Tigers have been hunted by humans for millennia, as indicated by a painting on the Bhimbetka rock shelters in India that is dated to 5,000–6,000 years ago. They were hunted throughout their range in Asia, chased on horseback, elephant-back or even with sled dogs and killed with spears and later firearms. Such hunts were conducted both by Asian governments and empires like the Mughal Empire, as well as European colonists. Tigers were often hunted as trophies and because of their perceived danger.^[225] An estimated 80,000 tigers were killed between 1875 and 1925.^[226][227]

Attacks

Main article: Tiger attack

In most areas, tigers avoid humans, but attacks are a risk wherever people coexist with them.^[228][229] Dangerous encounters are more likely to occur in edge habitats between wild and agricultural areas.^[228] Most attacks on humans are defensive, including protection of young; however, tigers do sometimes see people as prey.^[229] Man-eating tigers tend to be old and disabled.^[57] Tigers driven from their home ranges are also at risk of turning to man-eating.^[230]

At the beginning of the 20th century, the Champawat Tiger was responsible for over 430 human deaths in Nepal and India before she was shot by Jim Corbett.^[231] This tigress suffered from broken teeth and was unable to kill normal prey. Modern authors speculate that sustaining on meagre human flesh forced the cat to kill more and more.^[232] Tiger attacks were particularly high in Singapore during the mid-19th century, when plantations expanded into the tiger’s habitat.^[233] In the 1840s, the number of deaths in the area ranged from 200 to 300 annually.^[234] Tiger attacks in the Sundarbans caused 1,396 human deaths in the period 1935–2006 according to official records of the Bangladesh Forest Department.^[235] Victims of these attacks are local villagers who enter the tiger’s domain to collect resources like wood and honey. Fishermen have been particularly common targets. Methods to counter tiger attacks have included face masks worn backwards, protective clothes, sticks and carefully stationed electric dummies.^[236]

Captivity

Tiger at Big Cat Rescue in 2014

Publicity photo of animal trainer Gunther Gebel-Williams with several of his trained tigers, c. 1969

Tigers have been kept in captivity since ancient times. In ancient Rome, tigers were displayed in amphitheatres; they were slaughtered in venatio hunts and used to kill criminals.^[237] The Mongol ruler Kublai Khan is reported to have kept tigers in the 13th century. Starting in the Middle Ages, tigers were being kept in European menageries.^[238] Tigers and other exotic animals were mainly used for the entertainment of elites but from the 19th century onward, they were exhibited more to the public. Tigers were particularly big attractions and their captive population soared.^[239] In 2020, there were over 8,000 captive tigers in Asia, over 5,000 in the US and no less than 850 in Europe.^[240] There are more tigers in captivity than in the wild.^[224] Captive tigers may display stereotypical behaviours such as pacing or inactivity. Modern zoos are able to reduce such behaviours with exhibits designed so the animals can move between separate but connected enclosures.^[241] Enrichment items are also important for the cat’s welfare and the stimulation of its natural behaviours.^[242]

Tigers have played prominent roles in circuses and other live performances. Ringling Bros included many tiger tamers in the 20th century including Mabel Stark, who became a big draw and had a long career. She was well known for being able to control the tigers despite being a small woman; using “manly” tools like whips and guns. Another trainer was Clyde Beatty, who used chairs, whips and guns to provoke tigers and other beasts into acting fierce and allowed him to appear courageous. He would perform with as many as 40 tigers and lions in one act. From the 1960s onward, trainers like Gunther Gebel-Williams would use gentler methods to control their animals. Sara Houcke was dubbed “the Tiger Whisperer” as she trained the cats to obey her by whispering to them.^[243] Siegfried & Roy became famous for performing with white tigers in Las Vegas. The act ended in 2003 when a tiger attacked Roy during a performance.^[244] In 2009, tigers were the most traded circus animals.^[245] The use of tigers and other animals in shows eventually declined in many countries due to pressure from animal rights groups and greater desires from the public to see them in more natural settings. Several countries restrict or ban such acts.^[246]

Tigers have become popular in the exotic pet trade, particularly in the United States^[247] where only 6% of the captive tiger population in 2020 were being housed in zoos and other facilities approved by the Association of Zoos and Aquariums.^[189] Private collectors are thought to be ill-equipped to provide proper care for tigers, which compromises their welfare. They can also threaten public safety by allowing people to interact with them.^[189] The keeping of tigers and other big cats by private people was banned in the US in 2022.^[248] Most countries in the European Union have banned breeding and keeping tigers outside of licensed zoos and rescue centres, but some still allow private holdings.^[249]

Cultural significance

Main article: Cultural depictions of tigers

Further information: Tiger worship

The tiger is among the most famous of the charismatic megafauna. Kailash Sankhala has called it “a rare combination of courage, ferocity and brilliant colour”,^[143] while Candy d’Sa calls it “fierce and commanding on the outside, but noble and discerning on the inside”. In a 2004 online poll involving more than 50,000 people from 73 countries, the tiger was voted the world’s favourite animal with 21% of the vote, narrowly beating the dog.^[250] Similarly, a 2018 study found the tiger to be the most popular wild animal based on surveys, as well as appearances on websites of major zoos and posters of some animated movies.^[251]

While the lion represented royalty and power in Western culture, the tiger played such a role in various Asian cultures. In ancient China, the tiger was seen as the “king of the forest” and symbolised the power of the emperor.^[252] In Chinese astrology, the tiger is the third out of 12 symbols in the Chinese zodiac and controls the period between 15:00 and 17:00 o’clock in the afternoon. The Year of the Tiger is thought to bring “dramatic and extreme events”. The White Tiger is one of the Four Symbols of the Chinese constellations, representing the west along with the yin and the season of autumn. It is the counterpart to the Azure Dragon, which conversely symbolises the east, yang and springtime.^[253] The tiger is one of the animals displayed on the Pashupati seal of the Indus Valley Civilisation. The big cat was depicted on seals and coins during the Chola dynasty of southern India, as it was the official emblem.^[254]

Tigers have had religious and folkloric significance. In Buddhism, the tiger, monkey and deer are the Three Senseless Creatures, with the tiger symbolising anger.^[255] In Hinduism, the tiger is the vehicle of Durga, the goddess of feminine power and peace, whom the gods created to fight demons. Similarly, in the Greco-Roman world, the tiger was depicted being ridden by the god Dionysus. In Korean mythology, tigers are messengers of the Mountain Gods.^[256] In both Chinese and Korean culture, tigers are seen as protectors against evil spirits and their image was used to decorate homes, tombs and articles of clothing.^{[252][257][258]} In the folklore of Malaysia and Indonesia, “tiger shamans” heal the sick by invoking the big cat. People turning into tigers and the inverse has also been widespread; in particular weretigers are people who could change into tigers and back again. The Mnong people of Indochina believed that tigers could shapeshift into humans.^[258] Among some indigenous peoples of Siberia, it was believed that men would seduce women by transforming into tigers.^[252]

William Blake‘s 1794 poem “The Tyger” portrays the animal as the duality of beauty and ferocity. It is the sister poem to “The Lamb” in Blake’s Songs of Innocence and of Experience and he ponders how God could create such different creatures. The tiger is featured in the mediaeval Chinese novel Water Margin, where the cat battles and is slain by the bandit Wu Song, while the tiger Shere Khan in Rudyard Kipling‘s The Jungle Book (1894) is the mortal enemy of the human protagonist Mowgli. Friendly tame tigers have also existed in culture, notably Tigger, the Winnie-the-Pooh character and Tony the Tiger, the Kellogg’s cereal mascot.^[259]